RANGKUMAN MATERI B.INGGRIS

RANGKUMAN MATERI B.INGGRIS

M.1-M.14

ALFATH LUTFI HUSAINI

10216544

1EA01

UNIT 1

SOME & ANY

We can use some or any before plural or uncountable nouns. They all mean something similar to a/an before a singular noun. For example:

• Can I have a banana? [One banana, but any one is okay.]
• Can I have some bananas? [More than one banana, but any small group is okay.]

Generally, we use any in the same way as some: when we are thinking about a certain amount or number of something. Remember, usually both some and anycan only be used with plural countable nouns or uncountable nouns, but not usually with singular countable nouns.

We usually use some with affirmative (positive) sentences and any with negatives and questions:

• She bought some tomatoes [positive sentence].
• She didn't buy any tomatoes [negative sentence].
• Did she buy any tomatoes [question]?

However, there are some exceptions to this.

1: Any can be used in a positive sentence to mean 'it's not important which one'. When we use any in this way, it's most often used with singular countable nouns:

• You can take any bus.
• Pass me any glass.
• Come over any Sunday.

2: Any can also be used in positive sentences that have a negative feeling, for example if they include never, hardly, without:

• She never eats any fruit.
• We hardly watch any television.
• Julia left the house without any money.

3: Some can be used in questions when we expect that the answer will be 'yes'. This is very common in offers and requests:

• Would you like some coffee?
• Do you want some sandwiches?
• Could you give me some help?
• Could you pass me some sugar?

Compare the following two sentences:

• Do you have any letters for me? [This is a real question. I don't know if you have any letters or not.]
• Do you have some letters for me? [I think you do, so I'm expecting that you will say 'yes'.]

MUCH AND MANY

The words much and many mean a lot of.

§  If a noun is in singular, we use much

Example:

much money

§  If a noun is in plural, we use many

Example:

many friends

Use of much / many

In everyday English, we normally use much / many only in questions and negative clauses.

Example:

How much money have you got?

Carla does not have many friends.

Countable / Uncountable Nouns

In connection with much / many people often speak of countable nouns and uncountable nouns.

Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number (that's why they are called 'countable nouns'). Countable nouns take many.

Example:

100 friends – many friends

Uncountable nouns can only be used in singular. These nouns cannot be used with a number (that's why they are called 'uncountable nouns'). Uncountable nouns take much.

Example:

100 money – much money

Note: Of course you can count money – but then you would name the currency and say that you have got 5 euro (but not „5 money“).

A LITTLE AND A FEW

When do we use a little/little and when a few/few?

·         a little: non countable nouns (milk, marmalade, money, time etc.)

·         a few: countable nouns (bottles of milk, jars of marmalade, dollars, minutes etc.)

Examples:

·         He has a little money left.

·         He has a few dollars left.

We use few and little without the article a to point out a more negative meaning.

Examples:

·         A few students of our school know this. (There are some student who know it.)

·         Few students know this. (It is almost unkonown.)

A LOT OF AND LOTS OF

A lot of and lots of are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.

We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be used with countable or uncountable nouns.

Examples:

·         There are a lot of dogs in their house. (Countable noun)

·         I have a lot of time to answer your questions. (Uncountable noun)

·         I saw a lot of people waiting in the queue. (Countable noun)

·         We did have a lot of fun, didn't we? (Uncountable noun)

UNIT 2

ARTICLE A, AN, THE

 

Table of Articles

NUMBER	INDEFINITE	DEFINITE
Singular	a / an	the
Plural	nothing	the
Non-Count	nothing	the

• a before consonants (a book)
  an before vowels (an exam) 
• Pronunciation is what matters.
  an hour ('h' is silent and it's pronounced: an our)
• Temporary illnesses: (I have a headache, a cold, a fever, a backache)
• "The" with superlative forms (He is the smartest kid I have seen.)

 

Some Rules using Articles

 

Singular count nouns:

·         indefinite: use 'a'

·         definite: use "the"

My daughter wants to buy a dog this weekend. (Indefinite-Could be any dog)
The dog in the backyard is very cute.(Definite-The one in the backyard) 

He requested a puppy for his birthday.
He wanted the puppy he played with at the pet shop.
She ordered a hamburger without onions.
Did you drink the coke I just ordered? 

Plural count nouns:

Use "the" or Nothing, never 'a'. 

Come and look at the children. (definite)
Children are always curious. (indefinite)
She loves flowers. (indefinite)
The flowers in her garden are beautiful. (definite)
Do you like reading grammar rules?
Do you like reading the grammar rules on this page? 

Non-count nouns:

Use "the" or nothing.

He has experience. (if indefinite or mentioned for the first time)
He has the experience necessary for the job. (if definite or mentioned before)
The medicine the doctor prescribed had unpleasant side effects.
Writing in a second language is especially challenging.
Have you studied the history of South Africa?
History reminds us that events repeat themselves.

Definite Article THE Rules

Adjectives as Nouns

When referring to a group of people by use of an adjective rather than a noun, use "the". 

the elderly	the disabled	the unemployed
the rich	the sick	the needy
the homeless	the young	the restless

Names of Countries

Some countries are preceded by "the", usually if the name is plural, contains an adjective, or includes "of".

The United States	The Soviet Union	The Republic of Congo
America	Russia	Spain
Japan	China	Mexico

Cities and Streets use nothing

Chicago	Fifth Avenue	San Francisco
Highway 5	London	Kennedy blvd.

Rivers, Oceans, Seas, Groups of Mountains & Islands use "the"

the Amazon	the Atlantic	the Mediterranean
the Cascades	the Hawaiian Islands	the Bahamas

Numbers

Cardinal numbers(1,2,3) use nothing

World War 2	Page 7	Chapter 1
Mission 1	Paragraph 5	Channel 6

Ordinal numbers (1st,2nd,3rd) use "the"

The Second World War	the seventh page	the first chapter
the first mission	the fifth paragraph	the sixth channel

Titles of People

When a title is given with a name, use nothing 

President Mitchael

Queen Mary

Professor Scott

When a title is used without a name, use "the" 

The president

the queen

the professor

Schools

When a school has "of" in its title, use "the" 

The University of Arizona

The University of London

Chapter 2

When a school does not have "of" in its title, use nothing 

Lincoln High School

Arizona State University

Liverpool John Moores University

Location versus Activity

When referring to an activity, use nothing 
I am going to school now.(activity-study) 
He is always on time for class. (activity-learn)


When referring to the location, use "the" 

The meeting is at the school. (location-campus)
They are remodeling the movie theater. (location-building)
The new student had trouble finding the class. (location-classroom) 

Unique Objects - Use THE

the earth	the human race	the world
the moon	the sun	the universe

Part of a larger group, Use THE

1.      One of students

2.      None of the students

3.      Both of the students

4.      All of the students

NO ARTICLE

 

Do not use an article before a noun if that thing cannot be counted (an uncountable noun), such as water or information. You will also not use this noun in the plural (with an “s” at the end).

Examples:

·         “I travel to America every few months.”

·         “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.”

·         “I love democracy.”

·         “Family is very important to me.”

·         “We are having chicken for dinner.”

UNIT 3

Active and Passive sentence in Present form

·         Simple Present Passive

Active Voice	Passive Voice
S + verb-1 + direct object	S (direct object) + is/am/are + past participle +/- by … (agent)
S + modal + bare infinitive + direct object	S (direct object) + modal + be + past participle +/- by … (agent)

Active Voice	Passive Voice
S + verb-1int + preposition + object of preposition	S (object of preposition) + is/am/are + past participle + preposition +/- by … (agent)

EXAMPLE:

No.	Active Voice	Passive Voice
1	Pregnant women should eat dark chocolate regularly.	Dark chocolate should be eaten regularly by pregnant women.
2	People make books from trees.	Books are made from trees.
3	My parents treat me like a baby.	I am treated like a baby by my parents .
4	You can use the photos for free.	The photos can be used for free.
5	He often sleeps on the right side of the bed.	The right side of the bed is often slept on by him.

·         Present Countinous

Active sentences in the present continuous tense have the following structure:

Subject + is/are/am + -ing form of the verb + object

Passive sentences in the present continuous tense have the following structure:

Object of the active sentence + is/are/am + being + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence.

Example:

Active: I am reading a story.
Passive: A story is being read by me.
Active: The engine is driving the train.
Passive: The train is being driven by the engine.
Active: She is singing a song.
Passive: A song is being sung by her.
Active: The carpenter is making furniture.
Passive: Furniture is being made by the carpenter.

When the verb is followed by a preposition

Read the sentence given below:

My mother is talking to a stranger.

Here the noun a stranger is the object of the preposition to, and not the verb talking. But this sentence can be changed into the passive:

Passive: A stranger is being talked to by my mother.

Active: The children are laughing at the old beggar.

Passive: The old beggar is being laughed at by the children.

Active: I am waiting for him.

Passive: He is being waited for by me.

Changing a negative sentence into the passive

When a negative sentence is changed into the passive, not will come between is/am/are andbeing.

Active: She is not writing a story.
Passive: A story is not being written by her.

Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive

The passive forms of these sentences will begin with be (is/am/are). When the active sentence begins with a question word such as when, whose, why, which and how, the passive sentence will also begin with a question word. When the active sentence begins withwho or whose, the passive sentence will begin with by whom or by whose. When the active sentence begins with whom, the passive sentence will begin with who.

Active: Are the masons building a house?
Passive: Is a house being built by the masons?
Active: Who is waiting for you?
Passive: By whom are you being waited for?
Active: Whom are you waiting for?
Passive: Who is being waited for by you?
Active: Why is he not learning his lessons?
Passive: Why are his lessons not being learnt by him?
Active: Whose father is helping you?
Passive: By whose father are you being helped?

·         Present Perfect

Active sentences in the present perfect tense have the following structure:
Subject + has/have + past participle form of the verb + object
Passive sentences in the present perfect tense have the following structure:
Object of the active sentence + has/have + been + past participle form of the verb + by + subject of the active sentence

Changing an assertive sentence into the passive

Active: I have written a story.
Passive: A story has been written by me.
Active: They have built a house.
Passive: A house has been built by them.
Active: He has broken my window.
Passive: My window has been broken by him.
Active: I have placed an order for a digital camera.
Passive: An order for a digital camera has been placed by me.
Active: She has done her work.
Passive: Her work has been done by her.

Changing a negative sentence into the passive

Active: I have not received a telegram.
Passive: A telegram has not been received by me.
Active: She has not written a story.
Passive: A story has not been written by her.
Active: She has not cheated anybody.
Passive: Nobody has been cheated by her.

Changing an interrogative sentence into the passive

Passive forms of these sentences will begin with has or have. When the active sentence begins with a question word (e.g. when, where, which, why etc.), the passive sentence will also begin with a question word. When the active sentence begins with who or whose the passive sentence will begin with by whom or by whose. When the active sentence begins with whom, the passive sentence will begin with who.

Active: Have you kept the secret?
Passive: Has the secret been kept by you?
Active: Who has done this?
Passive: By whom has this been done?
Active: Why have you told a lie?
Passive: Why has a lie been told by you?
Active: Who has torn my book?
Passive: By whom has my book been torn?
Active: Have you written the letter?
Passive: Has the letter been written by you?
Active: Has the policeman caught the thief?
Passive: Has the thief been caught by the policeman?
Active: Has the postal department released a new stamp?
Passive: Has a new stamp been released by the postal department?

UNIT 4

Active and Passive Sentence in Past Form

·         Simple past

Affirmative Form	Object + was / were + verb3 (past participle)
Question Form	Was / Were + Object + verb3 (past participle) ?

                                                                           

Something was done by someone at sometime in the past.

Active : The teacher corrected the mistakes.
Passive: The mistakes were corrected by the teacher.

Active : Did the little boy sell all the candy bars? 
Passive: Were all the candy bars sold by the little boy?

Active : Lauren didn't eat any apples. 
Passive: No apples were eaten by Lauran.

Active : He didn't give the wallet. 
Passive: The wallet wasn't given by him.

·         Past Countinous

S + (be: was or were) + being + past participle

This tense is confusing because the verb "be" appears twice. This example uses the verb "teach" as the main verb:  teach / taught / taught
Singular	Plural
I was being taught	We were being taught
You were being taught	You were being taught
He was being taught
She was being taught	They were being taught
It was being taught

EXAMPLE:

(+)

Active :

• He was reading the newspaper
• She was watching TV
• They were studying english

Passive :

• The newspaper was being read by him
• The TV was being watched by her
• English was being studied by them.

(-)

     (-)  The newspaper was not being read by him
(-)  TV was not being watched by her
(-)  English was not being studied by them

(?)

(?)  Was the newspaper being read by him?
(?)  Was the TV being watched by her?
(?)  Was English being studied by them?

·         Past Perfect

Rules of Active and Passive voice (mentioned below) shows that helping verb 'Had + Been' is used with 3rd form of verb for making Passive Voice of Past Perfect Tense.

In case of Negative sentence, 'Not' is added between 'Had' and 'Been' and in case of Interrogative sentence 'Had' comes in the starting of the sentence and place of 'Been' remains before Verb

Type of Sentence	Rule of making Past Perfect Tense (Active Voice)	Rule of converting Past Perfect Tense (Active Voice) to Passive Voice
Positive	Subject + Had + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)	Convert Object to Subject + Had + Been + Verb (3rd form) + By + Convert Subject to Object + Remaining + (.)
Negative	Subject + Had + Not + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)	Convert Object to Subject + Had + Not + Been + Verb (3rd form) + By + Convert Subject to Object + Remaining + (.)
Interrogative	Had + Subject + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)	Had + Convert Object to Subject + Been + Verb (3rd form) + By + Convert Subject to Object + Remaining + (?)

Example:

Active  Voice	Passive Voice
Police had rescued number of child labourers.	Number of child labourers had been rescued by Police.
Terrorists had infected drinking water also.	Drinking water also had been infected by terrorists.
The slow hockey game had bored the spectators.	The spectators had been bored by the slow hockey game.
System had made lot many people guilty.	A lot many people had been made guilty by the system.
The corrupt officers had made him a scapegoat.	He had been made a scapegoat by the corrupt officers.
The organisation had recruited fifty soldiers.	Fifty soldiers had been recruited by the organisation.

UNIT 5

INDEFINITE PRONOUN (SOME, ANY, NO)

The indefinite pronouns are:

somebody	someone	something
anybody	anyone	anything
nobody	no one	nothing
everybody	everyone	everything

We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. We use pronouns ending in -body or -one for people, and pronouns ending in -thing forthings:

Everybody enjoyed the concert.
I opened the door but there was no one at home.
It was a very clear day. We could see everything.

We use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun:

Everybody loves Sally.
Everything was ready for the party.

When we refer back to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun:

Everybody enjoyed the concert. They stood up and clapped.
I will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have been waiting a long time.

We can add -'s to an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive.

They were staying in somebody’s house.
Is this anybody’s coat?

We use indefinite pronouns with no- as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.)

Anybody didn’t come >> Nobody came.

We do not use another negative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing:

Nobody came.
Nothing happened.

We use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things in addition to the ones we already mentioned.

All the family came, but no one else.
If Michael can’t come we’ll ask somebody else.
So that's eggs, peas and chips. Do you want anything else?

·         Reflexive Pronoun

Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves. They refer back to the subject forms of personal pronouns (underlined in the example below):

·         We didn’t decorate it ourselves. Someone else did it for us.

subject pronoun	reflexive pronoun
I	myself
you (singular)	yourself
he	himself
she	herself
it	itself
one	oneself
we	ourselves
you (plural)	yourselves
they	themselves

Reflexive pronouns for same subject and object

·         We often use reflexive pronouns when the subject and the object of the verb refer to the same person or thing:

·         He cut himself on the broken glass.

·         She made herself a cup of tea and sat down in front of the television.

·         Parents often blame themselves for the way their children behave.

We use a reflexive pronoun to make it clear who or what is being referred to.

Compare

Agnes looked atherself in the mirror.	The subject and the object are the same.
Agnes looked ather in the mirror.	The subject and the object are different. Agnes is looking at someone else in the mirror.

Reflexive pronouns for emphasis

We can use reflexive pronouns for emphasis:

·         The director of the company wrote to us himself to apologise for the dreadful service.(or The director of the company himself wrote to us to apologise for the dreadful service.)

We don’t use reflexive pronouns on their own as the subject of a clause, but we can use them with a noun or pronoun to emphasise the subject:

·         Parents and teachers always pass on to children what they themselves have been told, and this has been going on for hundreds, or even thousands of years.

Reflexive pronouns + by meaning alone

We often use reflexive pronouns with by to mean ‘alone’ or ‘without any help’:

·         Why don’t you go by yourself?

·         The children made the entire meal by themselves.

Reflexive pronouns for politeness

We sometimes use reflexive pronouns instead of personal pronouns for politeness, but not as the subject of a clause:

·         The National Trust is a charity depending on the support of people like yourself. (or… people like you.)

Warning:

We don’t use reflexive pronouns with verbs of everyday actions unless we want to emphasise something:

·         She washed and dressed and had breakfast in the tiny kitchen.

·         Not: She washed herself and dressed herself

UNIT 6

Have Something Done and Causative Have

If you 'have something done', you get somebody else to do something for you.

·         I'm going to have my hair cut.

·         She's having her house redecorated.

·         I'm having a copy of the report sent to you

In informal English, we can replace 'have' by 'get'.

·         We're getting a new telephone system installed.

·         They will be getting the system repaired as quickly as they can.

·         I got the bill sent direct to the company.

We can also use 'have/got something done' in situations where something bad has happened to people or their possessions. This is not something they wanted to happen.

·         John had all his money stolen from his hotel bedroom.

·         We had our car damaged by a falling tree.

·         I got my nose broken playing rugby.

We use a causative verb when we want to talk about something that someone else did for us or for another person. It means that the subject caused the action to happen, but didn't do it themselves. Maybe they paid, or asked, or persuaded the other person to do it. For example, we can say:

• I cleaned my house. (This means I cleaned it myself).

If I paid someone to clean it, of course I can say:

• A cleaner cleaned my house.

But, another way is to use a causative construction. So I can also say:

• I had my house cleaned.

In a sense, using a causative verb is similar to using a passive. The important thing is that the house is now clean. We don't focus on who did the cleaning.

Have + object + past participle (have something done)

We usually use 'have something done' when we are talking about paying someone to do something for us. It's often used for services. The form is 'subject + have + object + past participle'.

• I had my car washed.
• John will have his house painted.

Get + object + past participle (get something done)

We can also use 'subject + get + object + past participle'. This has the same meaning as 'have', but is less formal.

• The students get their essays checked.
• I'll get my hair cut next week.
• He got his washing machine fixed.

UNIT 7

Determiner: All, Each, Every, A Few,A Little

Other grammatical words that come before the noun are each, every, a few, a little, all, both and some and any.

"I like each of these shirts."
"I'd like to visit every clothes shop in Milan."
"Which shirt do you prefer? Either is fine."
"We don't have enough time to go to all the clothes shops."
"I don't have much money on me today."
"He doesn't have many shirts for work."
"They have a few coats on sale."
"I'd like several pairs of sandals for summer."
"I want to buy all of these shirts!"
"I'd like to buy both the green shirt and the red shirt."

Each, every and either

"Each" identifies one of a group.
"Every" refers to all the components of the whole group.
"Either" means "this one or that one".

"Every shoe shop in this town is expensive." ( = all the shoe shops are expensive).
"Each pair of shoes is hand-made." (= each separate pair is hand-made)
"Which one of these jumpers do you want? Either goes well with my jeans."

Use each, every and either with a singular countable noun.
"Each dress is beautiful."
"Every dress is beautiful."

Several, all and both

We can use "all" with a plural or uncountable noun.
"All the jeans are beautiful."

We can also add ("of") + these / possessive adjective:
"All of these shirts are beautiful."
"All (of) his shirts are hand-made."

You can use "both" and "several" in the same way as "all".

"Both shirts are lovely."
"Both of those hats suit you."

"They have several pairs of white trousers in that shop."
"They have several of those trousers that you like."

Don't use "the" before several, all, or both.

Enough and a few

"Enough" means "sufficient". "Few" or "a few" means "not much".

We use enough with uncountable nouns, and few / a few with plural nouns.
(Note: we can use "little" or "a little" with uncountable nouns.)

"We've got enough time to go to the shopping centre."

Enough of + determiner + noun
"I've got enough of this type of T-shirt at home. I don't need any more."

"A few" means three or four, while "few" means one or two (= a smaller quantity that "a few").

A few + plural noun
"There are a few interesting boutiques on this road."

A few of + determiner + noun
"I want a few of these woollen scarves for winter."

Use "little" and "a little" with uncountable nouns.
"Little" is smaller quantity than "a little".

"We have a little time left. Lets go to M&S." (Maybe we have twenty minutes left.)
"We have little time left before our train." (Maybe we only have ten minutes left.)

UNIT 8

Question Tag

Question tags are an important part of everyday communication and perform many different functions. For example, they can be used to get a conversation started or keep it moving; they can soften an order to do something or they can be a more polite way to request information.

Apart from the difficulty of knowing when to use question tags appropriately, the non-native speaker has to learn how to form them and how to say them. The general rule is that you finish a positive statement with a negative tag, and vice versa, using the main verb (if there is no auxiliary) or the first auxiliary verb (if there is an auxiliary).

For example:

• It's a lovely day, isn't it?
• You've been told about the meeting, haven't you?
• You didn't do your homework, did you?
• You wouldn't have been able to do it, would you?

How you say the tag depends on the function of the tag. The following sentence, when seen written down, is ambiguous.

• You haven't seen Sascha, have you?

This could be a genuine question; i.e. I don't know if you have seen him or not and I want you to tell me. (In this case the tag would be stressed and said with rising intonation). Or it could confirming what I know to be true and expecting an response like: "No, he hasn't been here all day." (In which case, the tag would not be stressed, and it would be said with falling intonation.)

UNIT 9

So and Such

Such is a determiner; so is an adverb. They often have the same meaning of ‘very’ or ‘to this degree’:

·         Those are such good chocolates.

·         Those chocolates are so good.

We use such + noun phrase and so + adjective or adverb phrase:

·         She is such a great cook.

Not: She is so great cook.

·         That was so unpleasant. (so + adjective)

Not: That was such unpleasant.

·         Why do you drive so fast? (so + adverb)

Not: Why do you drive such fast?

Compare

so + adjective	such + noun phrase
You’re so kind.	He’s such a kind person
It was so hot we couldn’t work.	November was such a cold month.

So but not such can also be used in front of much, many, little, few to add emphasis:

·         So much food was wasted every day.

Not: Such much food was wasted

·         In those days there were so few doctors in our area.

Not: … there were such few doctors

See also:

·         So

·         Such

Typical errors

·         We use such, not so, before a noun, even if there is an adjective before the noun:

·         They’re such snobs! They won’t speak to anyone else in the village.

Not: They’re so snobs …

·         Those are such cool shoes. Where did you get them?

Not: Those are so cool shoes.          

·         We use such, not so, before a noun phrase with the indefinite article a/an:

·         This is such a wonderful kitchen!

Not: This is a so wonderful kitchen!

·         We use so, not such, before adjectives:

·         Thank you. You’re so kind.

Not: You’re such kind.

·         We use so, not such, before adverbs:

·         She always dresses so elegantly.

Not: She always dresses such elegantly.

Third Conditional

for no possibility

If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a car.

The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did nothappen. That is why there is no possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the dream coming true.

Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-(

if	condition	result
	Past Perfect	would have + past participle
If	I had won the lottery,	I would have bought a car.

Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the Past Perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use would have + past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are impossible now.

Look at these example senteces:

if	condition	result
	Past Perfect	would have + past participle
If	I had seen Mary,	I would have told her.
If	Tara had been free yesterday,	I would have invited her.
If	they had not passed their exam,	their teacher would have been sad.
If	it had rained yesterday,	would you have stayed at home?
If	it had rained yesterday,	what would you have done?

result	if	condition
would have + past participle		Past Perfect
I would have told Mary	if	I had seen her.
I would have invited Tara	if	she had been free yesterday.
Their teacher would have been sad	if	they had not passed their exam.
Would you have stayed at home	if	it had rained yesterday?
What would you have done	if	it had rained yesterday?

UNIT 11

Direct and Indirect (Present Simple, Present Countinous, Present Perfect, Present Perfect Countinous)

No	Direct Speech		Indirect Speech
1	» Simple Present Tenses		» Simple Past Tenses
	+	S + V1(s,es) + o/c	+	S + V2 + o/c
	-	S + Do/Does + V1 + o/c	-	S + Did + Not + V1 + o/c
	?	Do/Does + S + V1 + o/c	?	Did + S + V1 + o/c
	Mother said, “I go to the market today”		Mother said that she went to the market that day
2	» Present Continuous Tenses		» Past Continuous Tenses
	+	S + TOBE(Is, Am, Are) + V1 + Ing	+	S + TOBE(Was,Were) + V1 + Ing
	-	S + TOBE(Is, Am, Are) + Not + V1 + Ing	-	S + TOBE(Was,Were) + Not + V1 + Ing
	?	TOBE(Is, Am, Are) + S + V1 + Ing	?	TOBE(Was,Were) + S + V1 + Ing
	Andi says, “I am going to school”		Andi says that he was going to school
3	» Present Perfect Tenses		» Past Perfect Tenses
	+	S + Have/Has + V3	+	S + Had + V3
	-	S + Have/Has + Not + V3	-	S + Had + Not + V3
	?	Have/Has + S + V3	?	Had + S + V3
	The Teachers said, “We have some tests for you”		The Teachers said that they have some tests for you
4	» Present Perfect Continuous Tenses		» Past Perfect Continuous Tenses
	+	S + Have/Has + Been + V1 + ing	+	S + Had + Been + V1 + Ing
	-	S + Have/Has + Been + Not + V1 + ing	-	S + Had + Been + Not V1 + Ing
	?	Have/Has + S + Been + V1 + ing	?	Had + S + Been + V1 + Ing
	Sherry said, “I have been reading the book		Sherry said that she had been reading the book

UNIT 12

Direct and Indirect (Past Simple & Past Perfect)

Simple Past	Past Perfect Simple
2nd column of irregular verbs Example: I spoke	had + 3rd column of irregular verbs Example: I had spoken
regular verbs: infinitive + ed Example: I worked	regular verbs: form of have + infinitive + ed Example: I had worked
Exceptions
Exceptions when adding ed: when the final letter is e, only add d Example: love - loved after a short, stressed vowel, the final consonant is doubled Example: admit - admitted final l is always doubled in British English (not in American English) Example: travel - travelled after a consonant, final y becomes i (but: not after a vowel) Example: worry - worried but: play - played

UNIT 13

Direct and Indirect (Future Countinous, Future)

    Simple Future

Affirmatives

§  Direct speech: RP +, + S + Will + V1 + ROTS
He said to me, “I will get a job soon.”

§  Indirect speech: RP + that + S + would + V1 + ROTS
He told me that he would get a job soon.

Negatives

§  Direct speech: RP +, + S + will not + V1 + ROTS
They said to me, “We will not give up.”

§  Indirect speech: RP + that + S + would not + V1 + ROTS
They told me that they wouldn`t give up.

Interrogatives

§  Direct speech: RP +, + Will + S + V1 + ROTS
They asked, “Will you teach us the practical grammar?”

§  Indirect speech: RP + if + S + would + V1 + ROTS
They asked me that if I would teach them the practical grammar.

Negative interrogatives

§  Direct speech: RP +, + Will not + S + V1 + ROTS
He asked, “Won`t you come with us?”

§  Indirect speech: PR + if + S + would not + V1 + ROTS
He asked me if I wouldn’t go with them.

WH/Information questions                   

§  Direct speech: RP +, + WH + will + S + V1 + ROTS
She asked, “What will you do tomorrow?”

§  Indirect speech: RP + WH + S + would + V1 + ROTS
She wanted to know what I would do the next day.

      Future Countinous

positif (+)	S + will be + V1-ing/present participle	He will be sleeping
		You and I will be walking
negatif (-)	S + will + not + be + V1-ing/present participle	He will not be sleeping
		You and I won’t be walking
interogatif (?)	Will + S + be + V1-ing/present participle	Will he be sleeping?
		Will you and I be walking?

      Imperative

A sentence which expresses command, request, advice or suggestion is called imperative sentence.

For example,

     •  Open the door.

     •  Please help me.

     •  Learn your lesson.

To change such sentences into indirect speech, the word “ordered” or “requested” or “advised” or “suggested” or “forbade” or “not to do” is added to reporting verb depending upon nature of imperative sentence in reported speech.

Examples.

Direct speech: He said to me, “please help me”

Indirect Speech: He requested me to help him.

           Direct speech: She said to him, “you should work hard for exam”

           Indirect Speech: He suggested him to work hard for exam.

           Direct speech: They said to him, “do not tell a lie”

           Indirect Speech: They said to him not to tell a lie.

           Direct speech: He said, “open the door”

           Indirect Speech: He ordered to open the door.

           Direct speech: The teacher said to student, “do not waste time”

           Indirect Speech: The teacher advised the students not to waste time.

           Direct speech: He said, “please give me glass of water”

           Indirect Speech: He requested to give him a glass of water.

           Direct speech: Doctor said to me, “Do not smoke”

           Indirect Speech: Doctor advised me not to smoke.

           Direct speech: The teacher said to him, “Get out”

           Indirect Speech: The teacher ordered him to get out.

UNIT 14

DIRECT INDIRECT QUESTION

'Yes / No' Questions

To make an indirect 'yes / no' question, we use 'if' and the word order of a normal positive sentence. This is the same as for reported 'yes / no' questions. On the other hand, we don't usually need to 'backshift' (change the tense of the verb) as we do with reported questions.

Of course, most tenses make questions by using 'inversion' (changing the word order). To change from a direct 'yes / no' question with inversion to an indirect question, you add 'if' and change the word order back to a normal positive sentence. You don't need to use inversion.

'Yes / no' questions for tenses with inversion:

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with 'be'	Is he Spanish?	Can you tell me if he is Spanish?
Present continuous	Is the restaurant closing now?	Can you tell me if the restaurant is closing now?
Past simple with 'be'	Was he late for the meeting?	Can you tell me if he was late for the meeting?
Past continuous	Were you watching TV at 3pm?	Can you tell me if you were watching TV at 3pm?
Present perfect	Has Lucy been to Mexico?	Can you tell me if Lucy has been to Mexico?
Present perfect continuous	Has she been living here long?	Can you tell me if she has been living here long?
Past perfect	Had she found this job when she moved here?	Can you tell me if she had found this job when she moved here?
Past perfect continuous	Had she been living here long when she met you?	Can you tell me if she had been living here long when she met you?
Future simple with 'will'	Will she start her new job next week?	Can you tell me if she will start her new job next week?
Future simple with 'going to'	Is it going to rain later?	Can you tell me if it is going to rain later?
Future continuous	Will Lisa be meeting the boss later?	Can you tell me if Lisa will be meeting the boss later?
Future perfect	Will he have finished the report by tonight?	Can you tell me if he will have finished the report by tonight?
Future perfect continuous	Will he have been studying French for twenty years when he retires?	Can you tell me if he will have been studying French for twenty years when he retires?
Modal verbs	Should we start now?	Can you tell me if we should start now?

            
'Yes / no' questions with tenses that use 'do / does / did':
Sometimes you want to make an indirect question using the present simple of any verb except 'be' or the past simple of any verb except 'be'. These tense make direct questions by using 'do / does / did'. When we want to make indirect 'yes / no' questions using these tenses, we need 'if' and we don't need 'do / does / did'.

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with any verb except 'be'	Does David live in London?	Can you tell me if David lives in London?
Past simple with any verb except 'be'	Did Amanda call John yesterday?	Can you tell me if Amanda called John yesterday?

'Wh' Questions

In the same way as with reported 'wh' questions, we use the question word and the word order of a normal positive sentence to make indirect 'wh' questions. We don't need to use inversion. Again, we also don't usually need to 'backshift' (change the tense of the verb) as we do with reported questions.

To change a direct question to an indirect question for tenses that make questions using inversion, you just add 'if' and change the word order back to a normal positive sentence.

'Wh' questions for tenses with inversion:

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with 'be'	Why is he unhappy?	Can you tell me why he is unhappy?
Present continuous	When is the restaurant closing?	Can you tell me when the restaurant is closing?
Past simple with 'be'	Why was he late for the meeting?	Can you tell me why he was late for the meeting?
Past continuous	What were you doing at 3pm?	Can you tell me what you were doing at 3pm?
Present perfect	Where has Lucy been?	Can you tell me where Lucy has been?
Present perfect continuous	How long has she been living here?	Can you tell me how long she has been living here?
Past perfect	Why had she quit her job before she moved here?	Can you tell me why she had quit her job before she moved here?
Past perfect continuous	How long had she been living here when she met you?	Can you tell me how long she had been living here when she met you?
Future simple with 'will'	When will she start her new job?	Can you tell me when she will start her new job?
Future simple with 'going to'	When is it going to rain?	Can you tell me when it is going to rain?
Future continuous	What time will Lisa be meeting the boss?	Can you tell me what time Lisa will be meeting the boss?
Future perfect	When will he have finished the report?	Can you tell me when he will have finished the report?
Future perfect continuous	How long will he have been studying French when he retires?	Can you tell me how long he will have been studying French when he retires?
Modal verbs	What should we do now?	Can you tell me what we should do now?

'Wh' questions for tenses with 'do / does / did':
Sometimes you want to make an indirect 'wh' question using the present simple of any verb except 'be' or the past simple of any verb except 'be'. Usually these tenses make questions by using 'do / does / did'. However, when we want to make indirect 'wh' questions using these tenses, we don't need 'do / does / did'. Instead, we use a question word and then normal positive sentence word order.

Verb Tense	Direct Question	Indirect Question
Present simple with any verb except 'be'	Where does David live?	Can you tell me where David lives?
Past simple with any verb except 'be'	Why did Amanda call John yesterday?	Can you tell me why Amanda called John yesterday?